Schizoid Personality: Hw it Presents, Signs & Causes

Last Updated On: Nov 25th, 2025

At a Glance: Schizoid Personality Disorder Overview

Category	Quick Insight
Definition	A personality disorder marked by emotional detachment, extreme independence, and avoidance of close relationships, stemming from early trauma like abuse or neglect. Not the same as schizophrenia or schizotypal disorder—focuses on social disconnection rather than psychosis or odd behaviors.
Causes	– Genetic factors, low serotonin, traumatic brain injury. – Environmental: Child abuse (physical, sexual, verbal), lack of parental supervision, emotionless upbringing, premature/low birth weight.
Key Signs & Symptoms	– Prefers solitude and solitary activities (e.g., reading alone). – Avoids close relationships, large gatherings, and sexual intimacy due to trust issues. – Indifferent to opinions/praise; hides emotions; no strong fight-or-flight response. – Fantasizes relationships but avoids real ones; appears aloof or dissociated.
Common Problems	– Lack of basic trust from abusive/neglectful parents. – Extreme self-sufficiency and privacy leading to isolation. – Dissociation as a coping mechanism; social fears and avoidance behaviors. – On-off relationships (“in and out” patterns); elaborate fantasies over real connections. – Existential fears of meaninglessness, death, or total disconnection. – Lacks object constancy (views people as all-good or all-bad).
When to Seek Help	If dissociation, loneliness, or emotional detachment causes frustration or distress. Therapy builds social skills, boundaries, and emotional expression; group therapy or bodywork aids reconnection.
Treatment & Prognosis	Therapy: – Individual psychotherapy for building trust and object relations – No long-term meds unless for anxiety/depression. Positive outlook: – Many lead satisfying solitary lives, especially in low-social jobs like remote work – Lower risk of anxiety/depression compared to other disorders.
Impact on Others	Family may feel stress/isolation; seek support to understand and cope.

Schizoid Personality

In my previous blog post, I discussed what is a schizoid personality disorder. When people hear the word schizoid, they either think of schizotypal disorder or schizophrenia or schizoaffective disorder. The two disorders, schizoaffective disorder and schizophrenia, are serious cases of psychoses. Those who suffer from schizotypal disorder show symptoms that are disturbing and more visibly odd than those with a schizoid personality disorder. The confusion between these disorders arises from the use of the word schizo. The word schizo is a Latin version of the Greek word, which means split. Let’s get one thing out of the way. Schizotypal disorder or schizophrenia is not the same as a schizoid personality disorder. 

Schizoid personality disorder is a pattern of indifference to social relationships, with a limited range of emotional expression and experience.

Psychology Today

Schizoid vs Schizotypal vs Autism Spectrum Disorder

Empowering yourself starts with accurate knowledge—many confuse these due to social overlaps, but recognizing differences can guide better support. This table draws from clinical comparisons to highlight distinctions without stigma. Always consult a professional for personalized insights.

Trait/Aspect	Schizoid Personality Disorder	Schizotypal Personality Disorder	Autism Spectrum Disorder
Core Features	Emotional detachment, preference for solitude, restricted affect; no odd beliefs.	Eccentric behavior, magical thinking (e.g., superstitions), paranoia or ideas of reference.	Social communication challenges, repetitive behaviors, sensory sensitivities; often with restricted interests.
Social Motivation	Low interest in relationships; avoids due to indifference or trust issues.	Discomfort in close bonds; odd perceptions lead to isolation, but may desire connection oddly.	Difficulty understanding social cues; may want relationships but struggle with reciprocity or sensory overload.
Emotional Expression	Flat or hidden emotions; indifferent to praise/criticism.	Fluctuating or anxious; may have bizarre emotional responses.	Varied; can be intense internally but masked or misunderstood externally (e.g., meltdowns).
Cognitive/Perceptual	No delusions; reality-based but dissociated (e.g., “black-and-white” life).	Odd beliefs, illusions, or transient psychosis-like ideas without full breaks from reality.	Literal thinking, strong pattern recognition; no magical thinking, but possible co-occurring anxiety.
Onset & Recognition	Often noticed in adulthood; stems from early trauma/neglect.	Evident in early adulthood; linked to schizophrenia spectrum, with oddities from childhood.	Diagnosed in childhood; developmental, with signs like delayed speech or sensory issues from infancy.
Common Overlaps	May co-occur with ASD (e.g., higher schizoid traits in ASD, Cohen’s d=2.3).	Shares spectrum with schizophrenia; more florid quirks than schizoid.	Overlaps with schizoid in social withdrawal but differs in motivation (sensory vs. indifference).
Treatment Focus	Therapy for trust-building and skills; positive in low-social roles.	CBT for odd thoughts; meds if psychotic features; addresses paranoia.	Behavioral therapies (e.g., ABA, social skills); accommodations for sensory needs; neurodiversity-affirming.

Causes Behind the Occurrence of Schizoid Personality

Before I discuss the causes behind the occurrence of this personality disorder, you must understand why it happens in the first place. A person is said to have a personality disorder when he/she display a persona that is not acceptable to society. However, certain factors predispose a person to develop this personality disorder. These can either be 

• Child abuse
• Sexual abuse
• Verbal abuse
• Absence of proper parental supervision
• Low birth rate
• Premature birth of the child
• Reduction of the hormone serotonin
• Traumatic brain injury
• Growing up in an environment devoid of emotions
• And a few others (J Nerv Ment Dis, 2021)
• Genetic factors: Heritability of schizoid personality disorder is estimated at around 30%, based on twin studies.

Research highlights a strong continuity between autistic traits and schizoid personality disorder, suggesting shared genetic and developmental pathways. In a prospective study of adolescents, individuals with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) showed significantly higher schizoid trait burdens compared to controls, with effect sizes like Cohen’s d=2.3 and correlations around r=0.462 between autistic symptoms and schizoid criteria (PMC, 2021). For instance, traits like preferring solitary activities were endorsed by 18% of ASD participants at the highest level, versus 0% in controls. Schizoid PD affects approximately 3-5% of the population, with overlaps to ASD showing Cohen’s d=2.3 for trait differences. This overlap implies that early experiences in ASD may amplify schizoid tendencies, but with proper support—like social skills training—you can build resilience and meaningful connections.

The higher the level of autistic impairment in childhood, the higher the level of schizoid PD symptomatology in adolescence.

Cook

Emerging research also suggests biological markers like low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C) may play a role in schizoid traits, particularly in females. A study found lower LDL-C levels negatively correlated with schizoid personality scores (ρ = −0.307, p = 0.022), potentially linking metabolic factors to social detachment and reduced trust (PMC, 2022). This highlights how biology and environment interplay, offering hope for targeted interventions.

Signs and symptoms of a person having a schizoid personality

The primary definition of a person with schizoid is distancing, disconnection, and detachment. Such people find it extremely hard to put their trust in another person because of their past trauma. They learned to depend only on themselves. Due to their highly independent nature, they come off as aloof and indifferent. Here are the primary characteristics of those suffering from schizoid:

• Avoid close relationships at all costs, because they view others as unsafe.
• Prefer to engage in solitary activities like reading, exercising, alone, or playing video games.  
• Prefer to avoid large gatherings. Such people will attend if the need arises, but they will prefer to stay away.
• They have little to no interest in any kind of sexual activity. This is because engaging in a sexual act requires a certain level of trust.
• The fight or flight response is not a cup of tea. Since such individuals have been dissociated from other people for so long that even in the face of danger, they find it hard to have an adrenaline rush.
• They have very few people whom they talk to about things important to them.
• Others’ opinions do not matter to them.
• They try to have fantasy relationships, but never like to approach the person of their affection.
• They experience emotions. However, they do not like to show the world how they feel (Front Psychiatry, 2023).

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Schizoid Personality Traits Quiz 🧠

Instructions: Answer these 12 questions based on your experiences.

⚠️ Disclaimer: This quiz is for educational purposes only, inspired by article themes and DSM-5 criteria—not a diagnosis. If results concern you, consult a licensed therapist.

What type of problems do people with schizoid personality face?

Since these people prefer to keep themselves completely unattached to anyone in society, there is a chance that they may encounter certain problems that arise by never learning to depend on others for anything. 

Absence of basic trust.

Their experiences taught them early in their childhood that they cannot depend on anyone except themselves. They either had uncaring, neglectful, abusive, or intrusive parents. This is why they became extremely independent and taught themselves that relying on others for their own needs is a mistake. Most people having schizoid personalities reported that by the time they reached the age of seven, they had realized that their family members or adults cannot be trusted to care for them. In most cases, such kids had parents who were either narcissistic or had a borderline personality disorder. This taught them that trusting others is a big mistake.

Extremely self-sufficient.

These people grew up with no affection from their parents. Their childhood was a cry for help, and they learned that they couldn’t depend on anyone for any of their needs. This is why those having schizoid personalities are extremely self-sufficient. They try to be as self-reliant and self-dependent as possible. Instead of looking to others for any kind of support or help, they only depend on themselves. This behavior is very unlike their narcissistic or BPD-type parents. They are also extremely private individuals. They do not like sharing any details of their personal life with others. This makes them look as if they are extremely aloof and do not care about anyone. However, the reality is that being this way gives them a higher sense of security.

Dissociation

Since the need to protect themselves arose in childhood, because of their parents, the victims were not able to fight back physically. When the body cannot fight, the mind tries to protect the individual by making them dissociate from the body itself. This way, the child was able to find a safe hideout inside his or her mind while the physical abuse continued. Unfortunately, by the time such people reached adulthood, the constant dissociation had become a part of their persona (Schizophr Bull, 2013). Up to half of patients experience at least one episode of major depressive disorder.

Dissociation is normal to them. Even if they do not want to, they will still dissociate themselves from people in their surroundings, because that is the only way the brain knows to protect such people. For them, their life is like walking through a black-and-white movie. None of the activities or actions indulge in feeling emotional meaningfulness to them. However, they function because that is what is required of them.

If a person has schizoid personality disorder, they have little desire to establish or maintain personal relationships and may structure their life in a way that allows them to minimize contact with others.

HelpGuide

Social fears

There is one thing that they learned since childhood. It was that no one is trustworthy. Even though what others think about them does not matter, when it comes to engaging in interpersonal interaction, they would not want to be with someone who has a loud voice, a dominating nature, or seems unpredictable. This is born out of a deep need to protect themselves against everyone in their surroundings.

Avoidance behavior.

Most of us have a fight-or-flight response. If things are not going according to us, we would generally prefer to remove ourselves from the situation. However, this behavior is very dominant in those with schizoid personalities. They tend to emotionally and physically distance themselves from their social peers and other people. If they are at a party, they will stick to the fringes. You may also find them stationed closest to the exit so they can make a quick escape whenever needed.

Escape hatches in the relationships

Those with schizoid personalities tend to build up escape hatches in their relationships. This gives them a way to justify why the relationship did not work out and why they should leave. They will either look for a job that involves a lot of traveling or start an affair with someone who is married and not emotionally available. They may try to periodically escape a successful relationship as well. The idea of being completely intimate with someone and sharing the deepest, darkest secret is not ideal for them. They prefer to be in open, no-strings-attached relationships. Most people with schizoid personalities feel trapped and claustrophobic when in a committed relationship.

In and out type of relationships in schizoid personality

One of the very common traits of a schizoid personality involves being in on-and-off relationships. Initially, the schizoid personality will try to love the other person and get their feelings reciprocated. However, the moment the other person starts to reciprocate their feelings and gets intimate, those with schizoid personalities will become scared. They will consciously shut down their feelings. This is an attempt to protect themselves. They will start to look for reasons to leave the relationship.

Once they have left the relationship some time later, their irrational fears will simmer down, and they will start to feel the attraction and love towards that person again. They may also want to restart the relationship. However, the same pattern repeats itself once the other person starts to reciprocate. If such people do not get therapeutic help, chances are that they will loop the other person in an in-and-out relationship.

Narcissistic behavioral patterns.

In most cases, those who are in a relationship with someone who has schizoid personality, think that the person has narcissistic behavioral patterns. One of the behaviors exhibited in the case of schizoid personality is behavior that appears to be superficial. This can hurt the partner. However, the motive of the schizoid is not the same as a narcissist. Narcissists leave the relationship because they are bored, and do not idealize the partner anymore. Narcissists look for validation from their partners. However,  those with schizoid personality do not want approval. They leave because they feel claustrophobic and trapped in the relationship. They do not entertain or like the idea of being in control of someone else.

Schizoid vs Narcissistic Personality Disorders

At Guilt Free Mind, we believe understanding these differences empowers you to seek the right support without self-judgment. This table highlights key distinctions based on clinical insights, helping clarify often-confused traits. Remember, these are overviews—professional evaluation is key for accurate understanding.

Trait/Aspect	Schizoid Personality Disorder	Narcissistic Personality Disorder
Core Motivation	Detachment and independence; avoids relationships due to trust issues or indifference.	Grandiosity and need for admiration; seeks constant validation and “supply” from others.
Social Interactions	Prefers solitude; indifferent to social bonds, appears aloof or emotionally flat.	Craves attention; manipulates or exploits others for ego boost, but lacks genuine empathy.
Emotional Expression	Restricted range; hides emotions, no strong reactions to praise or criticism.	Dramatic or superficial; may rage or devalue others if ego threatened.
View of Others	Sees others as unsafe or irrelevant; no desire to control or impress.	Views others as sources of supply or threats; often devalues or idealizes based on utility.
Relationships	Avoids intimacy; may have fantasy bonds but fears entrapment.	Cycles through idealization and discard; seeks admiration but struggles with true connection.
Self-Perception	Often feels empty or dissociated; existential fears of isolation.	Inflated sense of self; fears exposure of inadequacy or “average” status.
Common Overlap/Misconception	May appear “narcissistic” due to superficial behavior, but motive is self-protection, not boredom or superiority.	Lacks the schizoid’s true indifference; driven by ego needs rather than avoidance.
Treatment Approach	Therapy focuses on building trust and social skills; positive prognosis in solitary lifestyles.	Therapy addresses empathy deficits and grandiosity; often resistant due to denial.

An elaborate fantasy life

Those people with schizoid personality can substitute real relationships with elaborate fantasy relationships. Unlike what happens in real life, in the case of their fantasies, everything is the way they want. Therefore, fantasy relationships seem safer to them than real ones. In the case of people with schizoid personalities, they tend to create such elaborate and compelling fantasy worlds that they have gone on and become famous writers. Their fantasy is a happy place. Nothing goes wrong in the fantasy. Therefore, such people prefer to stay in their fantasy world more than in the real world.

Existential fears.

Such people become extremely preoccupied with the meaninglessness of life and the idea of death. They are afraid of keeping themselves away from others. However, they are also afraid of committing because of all the boundary-breaking that it comes with. They fear that if they keep isolating themselves, one day they will have no connection with any other human being. On the other hand, they fear that after spending a long time in mental isolation, they will not be able to connect. People with schizoid traits are more vulnerable to suicidal ideation, with higher planning due to introspection.

Hiding emotional reactions.

Those with narcissistic personality or borderline personality disorder tend to publicly attack others when they feel cornered or scared. However, those with schizoid personalities will avoid this confrontation at all costs. Such people do not give enough importance to others, so their opinions cannot make a dent in their psyche. Schizoid personality people do not look for approval from others. Praise is meaningless to them. Therefore, they try to handle all aspects of their lives on their own. They do not want others involved in their problems.

My inner analytical life had become so arid, drained as it was of all color and feeling, that it seemed hardly a life at all—and yet I could not stop it.

Personal account of a reader

Lack of object constancy and whole object relations.

Another common characteristic of those with schizoid is that they tend to lack whole object relations and object constancy. This is a common trait that is observed in the case of most personality disorders.

Object relations.

Object relation is the ability of one to see themselves in a relatable, realistic, and relatively integrated way that contains qualities that are both disliked and liked at the same time. This means excepting others to have a mixed bag of good and bad qualities. On the other hand, object constancy is the specific ability of a person to maintain relations with those objects/persons, even when you feel disappointed, angry, or physically distant from the said person. 

When there is an absence of object relations and object constancy, people view others as either being completely bad or completely good. Since no one is completely good, most people end up falling into the completely bad aspect. For those with schizoid, this would be the unsafe version.

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When should you consult a therapist?

If you are:

• Constantly frustrated with feelings of dissociation, emotional detachment, and loneliness.
• Finding it impossible to navigate through your distress and loneliness alone.

It is a sign to consult a therapist who is trained in identifying personality disorders. Your therapist will first work with you to diagnose the cause of your behavior. After that, they will work with you to build social skills that can help you integrate better into society. They will also provide coping strategies so that you can manage your emotional distress (Apollo Hospitals).

A correct diagnosis can make the therapy extremely valuable to you. This way, you will feel more successful and less alone. The one thing that matters most in the case of those having schizoid personalities is getting the support they need to live their lives to the fullest. Once the correct diagnosis has been done, you can lead a more positive and fulfilling life.

How can the therapist help?

• A good therapist can help you understand how to set the boundaries that increase your safety feeling.
• Practice how to express emotions and reference others in a way that is not hurtful to them.
• Work through your past experiences and, so that your today and tomorrow can be more meaningful.
•  Build up your social skills so that you feel more comfortable interacting with others.
• Make you realize what whole object relations are. This way, you will be able to recognize others and yourself as a part of an integrated society (Help Guide).     
• If you want to start interacting with others who face a similar issue as yours, group therapy might be another amazing option for you.
• Other complementary therapies like, bodywork, can also be an immense help in making you feel less detached from your own body (Cleveland Clinic).

Medication

In the case of schizoid personality, medications are not usually recommended. However, they may sometimes be used for a short duration. This is used when the person is facing depression or extreme levels of anxiety due to the schizoid personality. Anxiety is usually the result of fear of other people. It can also be the result of a related schizotypal personality. Haloperidol can eliminate traits rapidly.

Individual therapy can be useful. It most often helps such people establish authentic relationships. Individual psychotherapy cases have also been observed to help forge true relationships between the therapist and patient in therapy (Psychology Today). ASD-specific interventions should be considered for schizoid PD patients with premorbid histories of ASD

Psychotherapy 

In the case of schizoid disorder, long-term psychotherapy is generally not an option. The purpose of the treatment is to remove the pressing concerns that are present in the life of the individual. It can be used to address the absence of clear and rational thought that is negatively impacting the person’s behavior and ability to lead a normal life. The primary therapeutic plan will be discussed with the patient right at the onset of the treatment. Another factor to focus on is cultural differences, which can come up as personality disorders because of the person not adhering to the cultural norms. Boundaries protect your mental health.

Therapy helped me unlearn my mother’s gaslighting

HelpGuide

Understanding the prognosis of schizoid personality.

Prevalence of schizoid ranges from 0.0% to 4.9%, with a lower risk of anxiety/depression vs. other disorders. It has been observed to affect approximately 1% of the general population, with higher percentages in males. Those with schizoid personality generally lead a life that they are satisfied with. However, if you compare this disorder with other personality disorders, those with schizoid are less likely to experience depression and anxiety. This is especially true if they are in a scenario of work-from-home or in an occupation that does not put pressure on them to exhibit their social skills (MSD Manual).

Explore More on Guilt Free Mind

Guilt Free Mind is your compassionate guide to mental health awareness, emotional empowerment, and holistic healing. If you’ve been navigating the isolation of schizoid traits or seeking clarity on detachment and self-sufficiency, it’s time to foster connection without pressure. Through science-backed insights and empathetic strategies, Guilt Free Mind helps you explore personality patterns, build resilience, and embrace your unique path to well-being. Dive into my six wellness hubs below:

🧘‍♀️ Self-Care and Wellness: Nurture your independence while gently addressing emotional detachment. Discover solitary self-care rituals, mindfulness practices, and bodywork techniques to reconnect with your inner world—promoting balance and safety in your daily life without forcing social demands.

🧠 Understanding Personality and Behavior: Unpack the roots of schizoid traits like avoidance and dissociation. Gain insights into trust issues, object relations, and behavioral patterns—empowering you to differentiate from related conditions and foster self-awareness for healthier interactions.

🎨 Creative Healing and Therapy: Transform inner isolation into expressive outlets. Use art therapy, journaling, or fantasy exploration to process existential fears and emotional numbness—helping rebuild a sense of meaning and connection at your own pace.

💡 Mindful Productivity and Focus: Harness your self-sufficiency for fulfilling solitary pursuits. Learn techniques to manage dissociation, set personal boundaries, and enhance focus in low-social environments—turning independence into a strength while reducing mental fog.

💪 Emotional Recovery and Resilience: If schizoid patterns have led to loneliness or disconnection, this hub supports gentle rebuilding. Explore strategies for overcoming trauma, cultivating trust, and developing resilience—guiding you toward a more integrated and empowered self.

😌 Stress, Anxiety, and Depression Toolkit: Schizoid detachment can sometimes mask underlying stress or low moods. Access breathing exercises, reframing tools, and mindfulness practices to address isolation-driven anxiety—fostering inner peace, emotional expression, and a guilt-free path to healing.

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Conclusion 

Personality begins in the early childhood phases of an individual. The need for such a personality arises from the lack of parental support and trauma. Instead of feeling loved, understood, and appreciated, the child experiences neglect, intrusiveness, and abuse. This modifies the child’s thoughts of others. They especially feel that elders cannot be trusted. Thus, the child only relies on themselves to get through all kinds of problems. This behavior continues to adulthood, and as these individuals become adults, they find it impossible to depend on others.

In most cases, those with schizoid personalities live alone, because this is safer. They do not exhibit many different signs than normal people. Therefore, they are very hard to identify in a crowd. They hold jobs, work well at their office, and do not show any obvious signs of distress. Thus, it’s quite hard to identify such people unless you are someone who knows what to check for. They tend to internalize all their feelings and hide them away from everyone else.

Seek help

Schizoid personality is a mental health condition. It’s not one of the normal personalities. Therefore, just as is the case with other mental health conditions, you must seek help the moment you realize that it is disrupting your life or the life of your loved one. 

Professionals from the mental health field can provide you with plans that can help you manage your thoughts and behavior. The family members of those with schizoid also experience depression, isolation, and stress. If you are someone who is living with a person with a schizoid personality, you need to reach out for help as well. A mental health practitioner can help you understand the disorder of your loved ones in a better manner and provide you with coping strategies as well.

If you have experienced this personality, please put it in the comment section below. If you have any queries regarding this blog post or any other on Guilt Free Mind, feel free to reach out to me on Twitch.  I do co-working streams on Twitch from Thursday to Tuesday, 11 AM to 7 PM Indian Standard Time. You can also contact me via the contact form if you wish for a private session. Finally, last, but not least if you like watching videos, please subscribe to the YouTube channel of Guilt Free Mind. Remember to ring the notification bell so that you can be notified every time there is a new video release.

See you in my next post.

Dr. Shruti

Frequently Asked Questions

About the Author

Dr. Shruti Bhattacharya is the founder and heart of Guilt Free Mind, where she combines a Ph.D. in Immunology with advanced psychology training to deliver science-backed mental health strategies. Her mission is to empower readers to overcome stress, anxiety, and emotional challenges with practical, evidence-based tools. Dr. Bhattacharya’s unique blend of expertise and empathy shapes her approach to wellness:

• Academic & Scientific Rigor – Holding a Ph.D. in Immunology and a Bachelor’s degree in Microbiology, Dr. Bhattacharya brings a deep understanding of the biological foundations of mental health, including the gut-brain connection. Her completion of psychology courses, such as The Psychology of Emotions: An Introduction to Embodied Cognition, enhances her ability to bridge science and emotional well-being.
• Dedicated Mental Health Advocacy – With over 15 years of experience, Dr. Bhattacharya has supported hundreds of individuals through online platforms and personal guidance, helping them navigate mental health challenges with actionable strategies. Her work has empowered readers to adopt holistic practices, from mindfulness to nutrition, for lasting resilience.
• Empathetic Connection to Readers – Known for her compassionate and relatable voice, Dr. Bhattacharya is a trusted guide in mental health, turning complex research into accessible advice. Her personal journey as a trauma survivor fuels her commitment to helping others find calm and confidence.
• Lifelong Commitment to Wellness – Dr. Bhattacharya lives the principles she shares, integrating science-based habits like balanced nutrition and stress management into her daily life. Her personal exploration of mental health strategies inspires Guilt Free Mind’s practical, reader-focused content.

🏆 Guilt Free Mind was named one of the Top 100 Mental Health Blogs on Feedspot in 2025.

Disclaimer: This content is for informational purposes only and is not a substitute for professional medical advice.

References

• Apollo Hospitals. (2025). Schizoid personality disorder: Symptoms, causes, and diagnosis.
• Chadwick, P. K. (2013). Peer-professional first person account: Before psychosis—Schizoid personality from the inside. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 40(3), 483–486.
• Cleveland Clinic. (2025). Schizoid personality disorder. 
• Cook, M. L., Zhang, Y., & Constantino, J. N. (2021). On the continuity between autistic and schizoid personality disorder trait burden: A prospective study in adolescence. The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 208(2), 94–100. 
• Hadar-Shoval, D., Elyoseph, Z., & Lvovsky, M. (2023). The plasticity of ChatGPT’s mentalizing abilities: Personalization for personality structures. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 14, Article 1234397. 
• Hayakawa, K., Watabe, M., Horikawa, H., Sato-Kasai, M., Shimokawa, N., Nakao, T., & Kato, T. A. (2022). Low-density lipoprotein cholesterol is a possible blood biomarker of schizoid personality traits among females. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 13, Article 827619.
• HelpGuide.org. (2025). Schizoid personality disorder. 
• Psychology Today Staff. (2025). Schizoid personality disorder. Psychology Today. 
• Torrico, T., & Madhanagopal, N. (2024). Schizoid personality disorder. In StatPearls. StatPearls Publishing. 
• Zimmerman, M. (2023). Schizoid personality disorder (ScPD). In MSD Manuals.